Projections of Ancient Trade Routes in the Kūshnāma

Document Type : Original Article

Author

Aassistant professor of Persian Literature, Research Center of Eastern Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Peking University (PKU). China

Abstract

As one of the Iranian national and heroic epics after Firdawsī’s Shāhnāma, the Kūshnāma was composed in New Persian by Īrānshān (maybe Īrānshāh) ibn Abī al-Khayr at the beginning of the 12th century. It has more than ten thousand verses, nearly half of which are devoted to the exile of the mythical king Jamshīd’s descendants in the lands of Chīn, Māchīn, and B.sīlā, and to their resistance against the assaults by Kūsh and his son, brother and nephew of Żaḥḥāk, the Tāzī rulers of Chīn and Māchīn.In line with Iranian literary historiography, which typically retells history by combining legends of pre-Islamic provenance with Islamic-era historical knowledge, the Kūshnāma contains a wealth of relatively authentic geographical information about the ancient world and even depicts several long-distance travel routes. Such geographical information could be placed against the historical context in which it was composed and further verified by other Muslim classical historical and geographical works. Through the lens of historical geography, this paper elucidates the Kūshnāma’s depictions of travel routes between Iran and East Asia, most likely drawing upon historical prototypes from the trade routes between the northwestern nomadic zone and China’s central plain, the maritime trade routes between China’s central plain and the Korean peninsula, the fur trade routes between Northeast and Central Asia, and the northern trade routes between Iran and Europe. Moreover, certain plots of the Kūshnāma also imply the influence of ancient horse trade routes. I contend that travel routes in the Kūshnāma, whether presented as routes of migration or military expedition, reveal their fundamental nature as trade routes for their close relation to the large-scale commercial activities conducted by merchants of various ethnic groups over the Eurasian continent in history.A close examination of the Kūshnāma along with relevant sources in Perso-Arabic and Chinese historical and geographical works leads to the following conclusions: Kūshnāma’s depictions of the caravan trade between Chīn and Māchīn bear similarities with commercial activities of the Sogdians in history and can be read as a projection of Sogdian caravan commercial expeditions between Central Asia and East Asia in the Iranian epics. The prosperity of the maritime Silk Road provided Arabs and Persians with an important way to understand East Asia. Records related to China and Silla in some of the Muslim historical and geographical works compiled from the 9th century onward were evidently based on information acquired by Muslims along the maritime Silk Road. Therefore, it is reasonable that plots involving the maritime trade routes between China’s central plain and the Korean peninsula should appear in Persian epics. Considering scholarly consensus on Sogdian participation in the intra-Asian fur trade, I propose that B.sīlā’s delivery of sable to Iran and Chīn via diplomatic corps described in the Kūshnāma can be read as a projection of Sogdian international commercial affairs along the ways linking Central Asia and Northeast Asia in the Iranian epics. Analogues of Jamshīd’s clansmen’s journey via the northern sea route cannot be found in historical sources compiled before the composition of Kūshnāma, but a curious coincidence between the narrative of Kūshnāma and a later historical event draws our attention.This paper further demonstrates how ancient trade influenced literary texts by creating and shaping folk beliefs, more specifically how the horse trade in ancient times promoted the spread of folk tales about legendary water horses and how these stories later inflected important historical and literary texts including the Kūshnāma. According to the Kūshnāma, the inhabitants of B.sīlā used to cross-breed their domesticated horses with a magical horse living in the sea in order to obtain fine-bred ones. The marvelous horses of the water horse breed were sent by the kings of B.sīlā to the king of Chīn and Māchīn, as well as to the king of kings of Iran as precious gifts on several occasions. Textual evidence from the Iranian storytelling tradition and early Muslim geographical works suggests that accounts of fabulous horses coming out of water and mating with ordinary horses first originated in Khuttalān of Transoxiana and approximately from the 9th to the 12th century and then spread westwards, even to Urfa of southern Anatolia via Ṭūs in Khorasan, Ray and Hamadan on the Iranian Plateau. Therefore, we can at least hypothesize that in the Islamic era, stories concerning the water horse transmitted in Perso-Arabic literature are most likely the by-products of the westward migration of the people speaking Turkic languages. On the one hand, the flourishing international horse trade in ancient times may have influenced the spread of stories about the legendary water horse over the Asian continent, one of which was grafted onto the story of the Iranian princes exiled in B.sīlā in the Kūshnāma. On the other hand, kings of B.sīlā’s presentation of fabulous horses of the water horse breed to kings of Chīn and Iran in the Kūshnāma can be deemed as a literary projection of the commercial activities conducted by diplomatic missions.In conclusion, prosperity on the Silk Road, motivated by the need for trade between the East and the West, had significant cultural ramifications. The Kūshnāma’s incorporation of trade caravans and trade routes by Jamshīd’s and Żaḥḥāk’s clansmen can be attributed to folkloric expressions about the active long-term trade activities by diverse ethnic groups such as Parthians, Sogdians, Persians and Turkic-speaking peoples along the Silk Road in ancient times. Hence, they are projections of certain fragments of “folk history” in the collective memory of the ancient Iranians.
 

Keywords

References

ابن ابی‌الخیر، ایرانشان. (1377). کوش‌نامه، به تصحیح جلال متینی، تهران: انتشارات علمی
اصطخری، ابواسحق ابراهیم. (1373). ممالک و مسالک، ترجمۀ محمّد بن اسعد بن عبد الله تستری، به کوشش ایرج افشار، تهران: بنیاد موقوفات دکتر محمود افشار
امیدسالار، محمود. (1384). «یادداشت‌های کوش‌نامه»، فرهنگ ایران‌زمین، شمارۀ ۳۰، صص ۳۱۲-۳۳۶
آیدنلو، سجاد. (1388)، متون منظوم پهلوانی (برگزیدۀ منظومه‌های پهلوانی پس از شاهنامه)، تهران: سمت
آیدنلو، سجاد. (1384). «اسپ دریایی در داستان‌های پهلوانی»، مطالعات ایرانی، شمارۀ ۷، صص ۱۵-۳۸
حدود العالم من المشرق الی المغرب. (1362). مؤلف ناشناس، به تصحیح منوچهر ستوده، تهران: کتابخانۀ طهوری
رجب‌زاده، هاشم. (1381). «ژاپن در کوش‌نامه»، کتاب ماه تاریخ و جغرافیا، ش ۵۶ و ۵۷، صص ۶۵-۷۱
رحیم عفیفی، «پیشگفتار»، در ایرانشاه بن ابی‌الخیر، بهمن‌نامه، ویراستۀ رحیم عفیفی، تهران: انتشارات علمی و فرهنگی
رئیس‌نیا، رحیم. (1368). کوراوغلو در افسانه و تاریخ، تبریز: انتشارات نیما
صفا، ذبیح الله (1333). حماسه‌سرایی در ایران، تهران: امیر کبیر
عفیفی، رحیم. (1370). «پیشگفتار»، در ایرانشاه بن ابی‌الخیر، بهمن‌نامه، ویراستۀ رحیم عفیفی، تهران: انتشارات علمی و فرهنگی
فردوسی، ابوالقاسم. (1382). شاهنامه، بر پایۀ چاپ مسکو، ج ۲، تهران: انتشارات هرمس
متینی، جلال. (1369). «فریدون و سرزمین آفتاب تابان»، ایران‌شناسی، ش ۵، صص ۱۶۰-۱۷۷
متینی، جلال. (1377). «مقدمه»، در ایرانشان بن ابی‌الخیر، کوش‌نامه، به تصحیح جلال متینی، تهران: انتشارات علمی، صص ۲۵-۱۴۱
مجمل التواریخ و القصص، (1318). مؤلف ناشناس،  به تصحیح ملک‌الشعرای بهار، تهران: چاپخانۀ خاور
معین، محمّد. (1364). فرهنگ فارسی، 6 ج، تهران: امیر کبیر
همدانی، محمّد بن محمود. (1375). عجایب‌نامه، به ویرایش جعفر مدرس صادقی، تهران: نشر مرکز.
 
Akbarzadeh, Dayroosh. (2016). “Silla the founder or Silla the Kingdom: According to Kūš-nāmeh and selected Arabo-Persian Texts,” Acta Via Serica 1, no.1: 25-32
Ban, Gu. (1962). Han shu [漢書; The book of Han], 12 vols., Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. (2009). “Ḵottal,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, ed. E. Yarshater, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kottal-province-of-medieval-islamic-times-in-modern-tajikistan
Chang, Qu. (1984). Huayang guozhi jiaozhu [华阳国志校注; Revision and annotation of Huayang guozhi], annot. Liu Lin, Chengdu: Bashu Shushe
Du, You. (1988). Tong dian [通典; Comprehensive institutions], ed. Wang Wenjin et al. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Gharib, B. (1995). “Introduction,” in B. Gharib, Sogdian Dictionary (Sogdian-Persian-English) [Farhang-i Sughdī (Sughdī-Farsī-Inglīsī)], Tehran: Farhangan Publications
Ibn Khordādhbeh. (1889). Kitāb al-Masālik wa’l-Mamālik, ed. M.J. De Goeje (Lugduni Batavorum: E. J. Brill
Kāšγarī, Maḥmūd. (1982). Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Dīwān Luγāt at-Turk), part 1, ed. and trans. Robert Dankoff with James Kelly (Cambridge: Harvard University Printing Office
Lee, Hee Soo. (2018). “Evaluation of Kūshnāma as a Historical Source in Regard to Descriptions of Basīlā,” Acta Koreana 21, no.1: 15-36
Li, Fang et al. (1960). Taiping yulan [太平御覽; Royal readings of the Taiping era], Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Li, Yanshou. (1974). Bei Shi [北史; History of the Northern Dynasties], 10 vols., Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju
Linghu, Defen et al. (1971). Zhou shu [周書; The book of Zhou], 3 vols., Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Liu, Yingjun. (2015). “Yilang shishi Kushi wangji suozai gudai Zhongguo dili xinxi chuyi” [伊朗史诗库什王纪所载古代中国地理信息刍议; A study of the geographic information on ancient China contained in the Iranian epic Kūshnāma], in Xiyu wenshi [西域文史; Literature and history of the Western Regions], vol. 10, ed. Zhu Yuqi (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 233-252
Liu, Yingjun. (2017). “Cong Kushi wangji kan gudai Yilang yu Dongya zhi jiaotong” [从库什王纪看古代伊朗与东亚之交通; The travel routes between ancient Iran and East Asia as reflected in Kūshnāma], Xiyu yanjiu [西域研究; The Western Regions Studies] 105: 63-75
Liu, Yingjun. (2018). “Possible Connections between Historical Events and the Plots of Iranian Princes Exiled in Chīn and B.sīlā Depicted in Kūshnāma,” Acta Koreana 21, no.1, 37-63
Ma, Duanlin. (1986). Wenxian tongkao [文獻通考; Comprehensive studies in administrative documents], Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Mazhahaili, Ali (Aly Mazahéri). (1993). Sichou zhilu: Zhongguo-Bosi wenhua jiaoliu shi [丝绸之路——中国-波斯文化交流史; La Route de la soie], trans. Geng Sheng, Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi. (1975). Xin Tangshu [新唐書; New book of the Tang], 20 vols., Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Pelliot, Paul. (1959). Notes on Marco Polo, vol. 1, Paris: Imprimerie Nationale Librairie Adrien-Maisonneuve
Piao, Zhenshi. (1979). “Shiyi zhi shi’er shiji Song yu Gaoli de maoyi wanglai” [十一——十二世纪宋与商丽的贸易往来; Trade contacts between Song and Goryeo during the 11th and 12th centuries], Yanban daxue xuebao [延边大学学报(哲学社会科学版); Journal of Yanbian University (Social Sciences)], no.2
Rieu, Charles. (1895). Supplement to the Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the British Museum, London: The British Museum
Rong, Xinjiang. (2002). “Bosi yu Zhongguo: Liangzhong wenhua zai Tangchao de jiaorong” [波斯与中国: 两种文化在唐朝的交融; Persia and China: Interaction and exchange between two cultures in the Tang era], in Zhongguo xueshu [中国学术; China scholarship], vol. 3, no. 4, ed. Liu Dong, Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 56-76
Rypka, Jan. (1968). History of Iranian Literature, ed. Karl Jahn, Dordrecht-Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company
Sachau, Edward C, trans. and ed. (1910). Alberuni’s India: An English Edition, with Notes and Indices, vol. 1, London: Kegan Paul
Savory, R. M. (1995). “Ṣafawids: II. Economic and commercial history; trade relations with Europe”, in C. E. Bosworth, et al (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Islam (New ed.), vol. 8, prepared by a number of leading orientalists Leiden: Brill
Sima, Qian. (1959). Shi ji [史記; Records of the grand historian], 10 vols., Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Vosooghi, Mohammad Bagher. (2018). “Geographical Location of Sillā in Muslim Astronomical Literature of the Thirteen to Sixteen Centuries CE,” Acta Koreana 21, no.1: 65-79
Wang, Xiaofu. (2001). “‘Heidiao zhilu’ zhiyi: gudai Dongbeiya yu shijie wenhua lianxi zhi wojian” [“黑貂之路”质疑: 古代东北亚与世界文化联系之我见; A query into “the Sable Road”: On the cultural connections between Northeast Asia and the world in ancient times], Lishi yanjiu [历史研究; Historical Research] 271, no. 3: 81–90
Watson, W. (1983). “Iran and China,” in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, part 1, ed. Ehsan Yarshater, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 552-553
Wei, Shou. (1974). Wei shu [魏書; The book of Wei], 8 vols., Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Wei, Zheng and Linghu, Defen. (1973). Sui shu [隋書; The book of Sui], 6 vols., Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Xuanzang and Bianji. (1985). Datang Xiyuji jiaozhu [大唐西域記校注; A collation and annotation of Da Tang Xiyu ji], annot. Ji Xianlin et al. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Yang, Xuanzhi) .1963). Luoyang qielan ji jiaoshi [洛陽伽藍記校釋; A collation and annotation of Luoyang qielan ji], ed. and annot. Zhou Zumo, Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
Yule, Henry, trans. and ed. (1915). Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, vol. 1, rev. Henri Cordier (London: Hakluyt Society
Zhang, Guangda. (1978). “Guanyu Mahemu Kashigali de Tujueyu cihui yu jianyu cishu de yuanxing ditu (shang)” [关于马合木·喀什噶里的突厥语词汇与见于此书的圆形地图(上); On Dīwān lughāt al-Turk of Maḥmūd Kāshgharī and the round map seen in it (part 1)], Zhongyang minzu xueyuan xuebao [中央民族学院学报; Journal of Minzu University of China], no. 2: 29-42
Zheng, Linzhi et al. (2014). Gaoli shi [高麗史; History of Goryeo], 10 vols., ed. Sun Xiao (Chongqing: Xinan shifan daxue chubanshe, Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 52-53

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 09 April 2021
  • Revise Date: 05 May 2021
  • Accept Date: 10 June 2021

Share

How to cite

Statistics